The present invention relates to compositions for the protection, treatment and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals.
The tissues of mammals, including humans, are in a constant state of flux between the anabolic processes that build up tissues, and the catabolic processes which degrade tissues. The state of health exists when there is a balance between these two processes, and derangements of the balance produce disease. This holds true for all tissues of the body. Connective tissues are of particular importance for several reasons. First, they support the xe2x80x9cfunctional cellsxe2x80x9d of the body, i.e., epithelial, muscle and neural cells. Second, they play critical roles in intercellular communication, which is essential for multicellular life.
The inflammatory process occupies a key position in this balance. When injury to tissues occurs, inflammation initiates the biochemical processes that result in tissue repair. Because inflammation results in the symptoms of pain, inflammation, and swelling of the tissues involved, it is often regarded by both patients and physicians as an abnormal and undesirable state, which should be treated and relieved as soon and as completely as possible. As a result, pharmacies are full of xe2x80x9canti-inflammatory drugsxe2x80x9d (such as corticosteroids and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin). Under certain circumstances, inflammation can indeed be destructive; however, it is important to remember that inflammation is closely linked with tissue healing. Indeed, inflammation is not easily categorized as strictly anabolic or catabolicxe2x80x94it may have either effect. Its purpose in the body is to remove, dilute or wall-off the injurious agent(s). It also sets into motion the biochemical processes that repair and reconstruct the damaged tissue. Because it is essential to healing, and because it can also cause tissue destruction, inflammation and its mediators are important factors in the anabolic and catabolic balance.
One very important class of inflammatory mediators is the eicosanoid group. The eicosanoids are synthesized in the body from essential fatty acids (xe2x80x9cFasxe2x80x9d). Through a series of biochemical reactions, the precursor fatty acids are modified to produce intermediate metabolites, arachadonic acid (xe2x80x9cAAxe2x80x9d), an omega-6 FA; and eicosapentanoic acid (xe2x80x9cEPAxe2x80x9d), an omega-3 FA. Eicosanoids produced from arachidonic acid include the 2-series of prostaglandins and the 4-series of leukotrienes, which are generally proinflammatory. The eicosanoids derived from EPA, such as the 3 series prostaglandins and hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (xe2x80x9cHEPExe2x80x9d), are less inflammatory than those derived from AA. In addition, such eicosanoids may even have anti-inflammatory effects.
As a class, the eicosanoids are short-lived and locally active. They are responsible for the initial events of inflammation, including vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and chemotaxis. Moreover, the eicosanoids are instrumental in the early steps of the healing process. For example, the eicosanoids trigger the release of cytokines such as TGF-xcex2, which in turn stimulates the migration and proliferation of connective tissue cells, and the deposition of extracellular matrix. Specific constitutive eicosanoids also have protective effects in the gastrointestinal mucosa and kidney, because they maintain glycosaminoglycan synthesis and normal perfusion of these organs.
Because of anabolic processes such as these, and because of the influence of natural anti-catabolic and anti-oxidant agents in the body, the outcome of the majority of cases of inflammation is resolution of the injury, and healing of the damaged tissues. Only in pathologic situations does inflammation itself become a contributor to disease.
Research on the therapeutic use of eicosanoid precursor FAs (including cis-linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, the so-called omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) has been primarily directed towards their use as competitive inhibitors of the synthesis of eicosanoids, and therefore, their anti-inflammatory effects. Except in cases of severe or absolute dietary deficiency, little attention has been given to the beneficial, anabolic effects that the eicosanoids have in connective tissues. However, naturally occurring xe2x80x9csubclinicalxe2x80x9d deficiencies of eicosanoids probably contribute significantly to disease, and are under diagnosed. For example, the enzyme delta-6-desaturase is responsible for the committed step in the synthesis of AA. Activity of this enzyme, (delta-6-desaturase) decreases with age. This is likely to prove a significant factor in the increased incidence of connective tissue dysfunction in older population segments since a deficiency of AA would decrease anabolic processes and allow catabolic events to dominate.
Given the importance of inflammation in the healing of tissues, and the protective role that some eicosanoids play, it is not surprising that pharmaceuticals that decrease inflammation by blocking eicosanoid production should also have negative effects on healing and anabolic processes. It has long been known that corticosteroid drugs, which are strongly anti-inflammatory, also delay healing and decrease the production of extracellular matrix components. This is because cortisol and related compounds stabilize cell membranes and therefore inhibit the release of phospholipase A2, the precursor of AA. Recently attention has turned to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (xe2x80x9cNSAIDsxe2x80x9d). Numerous studies have shown that NSAIDs, like corticosteroids, can decrease the synthesis of matrix components by connective tissue cells, because they inhibit prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase, and thus block the cyclooxygenase pathway.
Since the inflammatory process is the sine qua non of tissue healing, and since the eicosanoids are the mediators of the inflammatory process, the use of AA (and other eicosanoid compounds) is a novel approach to therapy of injured tissues. Kirkpatrick et al. investigated the use of prostanoid precursors on chick embryonic cartilage in organ culture and found no significant effects. [Kirkpatrick, C. J., xe2x80x9cEffects of Prostanoid Precursors and Indomethacin on Chick Embryonic Cartilage Growth in Organ Culture,xe2x80x9d Expl. Cell Biol., 51:192-200 (1993)]. The experimental model in this work may have contributed to the absence of significant effects, because avian cartilage and embryonic cartilage differ significantly from mammalian, postnatal cartilage. For example, embryonic cartilage of any species is hypermetabolic and anabolic to begin with because it is in a period of exponential growth. Kent et al. examined the effects of AA in lapine cartilage and found a positive effect, although previous and subsequent research failed to confirm this. [Kent, L. et al., xe2x80x9cDifferential Response of Articular Chondrocyte Populations to Thromboxane B2 and Analogs of Prostaglandin Cyclic Endoperoxidases,xe2x80x9d Prostaglandins, 19:391-406 (1980)]. Kirkpatrick and Gardner found that AA and various metabolites of AA had insignificant or inhibitory effects on biosynthesis. [Kirkpatrick C. J. and Gardner, D. L., xe2x80x9cInfluence of PGA1 on Cartilage Growth,xe2x80x9d Experientia, 33(4):504 (1976)]. These variable results are not unexpected, since the balance between anabolic and catabolic processes in the body is delicate and easily perturbed. Phan et al., suggest that products of AA via the cyclooxygenase pathway are anti-fibrogenic while AA products via the lipoxygenase pathway are pro-fibrogenic. This phenomenon demonstrates the complexity of the eicosanoids"" interactions.
Catabolic events are typically mediated in the body by enzymes that break apart body constituents. Catabolism is essential for health and deficiency of necessary enzymes results in disease, such as the so-called storage diseases like mucopolysaccharhidosis. Excessive catabolism may also result in the breakdown of tissues and lead to disease, as in degenerative diseases like osteoarthritis or autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis. Various anti-catabolic substances in the body help contain and balance catabolism. For example, chondroitin sulfate counteracts metalloproteinases that catabolize collagen and proteoglycans in the cartilage matrix. Similarly, alpha-one anti-trypsin inhibits the effects of elastase, which contributes to alveolar breakdown in emphysema.
Oxidative damage also has an impact on the balance of anabolism and catabolism in the body. This damage is the result of the effects of free radicals, substances that have an unpaired electron. Free radicals form constantly in the body as the result of normal reactions like the production of ATP. They also form during the inflammatory process. Free radicals cause cellular damage because they are highly chemically reactive. Because they have only a single electron, (a condition that nature abhors as it does a vacuum), these substances xe2x80x9cstealxe2x80x9d electrons from molecules in their vicinity. The molecules making up cell structures, such as the cell membrane or DNA are thereby rendered electron-deficient. The deficiency of electrons in turn makes the cell structure unstable and cell dysfunction occurs, including manufacture of abnormal proteins, cell rupture, and cell death. Oxidative damage is implicated in many catabolic events in the body, including the aging process. Anti-oxidants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, superoxide dismutase (SOD), selenium, and glutathione are substances that scavenge free radicals before oxidative damage occurs. In the sense that they prevent cell damage, anti-oxidants are a specific type of anti-catabolic agent.
The body also contains anabolic compounds that stimulate tissue growth. Glucosamine is an amino sugar naturally formed in the body from glucose. When supplied exogenously, glucosamine stimulates connective tissue cell synthesis, and thereby increases the amounts of normal extracellular matrix. Glucosamine is also the building block for glycosaminoglycans in cartilage and other connective tissues. Supplying additional glucosamine thus supplies the body with extra raw materials for matrix synthesis in connective tissues. Other examples of anabolic compounds in the body include somatotropin, which stimulates protein synthesis, and the somatomedins or insulin-like growth factors, which stimulate the proliferation of chondrocytes and fibroblasts and enhance matrix synthesis.
The actions and interactions of these compounds are complex. A given compound may have different effects in different tissues. For example, somatotropin increases protein synthesis (anabolism), but also speeds fat breakdown (catabolism). The effects that a particular compound or combination of compounds will have depend on many factors, including route of administration, dosage, and duration of therapy.
Previous researchers have investigated the use of individual compounds for their anabolic, anti-oxidant or anti-catabolic effects. Glucosamine has been found in cell culture to stimulate connective tissue cells to produce the components of the matrix: collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). [Jimenez, S., xe2x80x9cThe Effects of Glucosamine sulfate on Chondrocyte Gene Expression,xe2x80x9d Eular Symposium, Madrid October 1996 Proceedings, page 8-10]. S-adenosylmethionine is known to participate in several synthesis reactions, including the sulfation of GAGs. [Champe, P.Biochemistry, 2nd edition, J. B. Lippincott Co, Philadelphia, 1994, pp. 248, 250, 265]. Arachadonic acid has been found to stimulate corneal healing. [Nakamura, M., xe2x80x9cArachidonic Acid Stimulates Corneal Epithelial Migrationxe2x80x9d, J. Ocul. Pharmacol., Summer:10(2): 453-9(1994)]. These compounds therefore have anabolic effects.
Chondroitin sulfate has been shown to inhibit degradative enzymes, including the metalloproteinases that destroy cartilage matrix. [Bartolucci, C., xe2x80x9cChondroprotective action of chondroitin sulfate,xe2x80x9d Int. J. Tiss. Reac., XIII(6):311-317 (1991)]. Studies with pentosan sulfate have shown that it prevents complement-mediated damage in a rabbit myocardial cells. [Kilgore, K., xe2x80x9cThe Semisynthetic Polysaccharide Pentosan Polysulfate Prevents Complement-Mediated Myocardial Injury in the Rabbit Perfused Heart,xe2x80x9d J. Pharmocol. Exp. Ther., 285(3):987-94 (1998)]. Oral administration of collagen type II has been shown to decrease the deleterious immune response that destroys joint tissue in rheumatoid arthritis. Tetracycline analogues are potent inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases. [Ryan, M., xe2x80x9cPotential of Tetracyclines to Modify Cartilage Breakdown in Osteoarthritis.xe2x80x9d [Curr. Opin. Rheumatol., 8(3): 238-47 (1996)]. Diacerein modifies the inflammatory process by inhibiting interleukin-1 activity, and also by direct effects on lymphocytes and neutrophils. [Beccerica, E., xe2x80x9cDiacetylrhein and rhein: in vivo and in vitro effect on lymphocyte membrane fluidity,xe2x80x9d Pharmocol. Res., 22(3):277-85(1990); Mian, M., xe2x80x9cExperimental Studies on Diacerhein: Effects on the Phagocytosis of Neutrophil Cells from Subcutaneous Carregeenan-Induced Exudate,xe2x80x9d Drugs Exp. Clin. Res., 13(11):695-8 (1987); Spencer, C., xe2x80x9cDiacereinxe2x80x9d, Drugs,53(1):98-106 (1997)].These compounds can be classed as anti-catabolic agents.
L-ergothionine scavenges hydroxyl radicals and may inhibit singlet oxygen formation, [Han J S. xe2x80x9cEffects of Various Chemical Compounds on Spontaneous and Hydrogen Peroxide Induced Reversion in Strain TA104 of Salmonella typhimuriu,.xe2x80x9d Mutant Res., 266(2):77-84 (1992)], while superoxide dismutase scavenges superoxide radicals [Mathews C., Biochemistry 2nd ed., Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co., Menlo Park Calif., 1996, page 551]. These compounds can be classified as anti-oxidants.
Although these compounds have been investigated individually, to our knowledge no one other than the present inventors has examined the effects of certain combinations of any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic and anti-oxidant agents to maintain health and to promote healing. According to the present invention, combinations of these agents can be used to maximize appropriate anabolic effects (healing) and decrease undesirable catabolic effects (degradation) and oxidative damage, while at the same time, causing minimal or no adverse reactions. Therefore, it can be seen that there exists a need to provide compositions that will make use of the beneficial effects of combinations of anabolic agents, anti-catabolic agents and anti-oxidant agents for the maintenance and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals.
The present invention provides novel compositions and methods of treating repairing, and preventing damage to connective tissues in humans and animals using such compositions. Therefore, it is an object of the invention to provide novel compositions of any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, and anti-oxidant agents for the protection, treatment and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals.
It is another object of the present invention to provide methods of treating and repairing connective tissue in humans and animals with compositions containing any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, and anti-oxidant agents.
It is still another object of the present invention to provide compositions any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, and anti-oxidant agents selected from the group consisting of aminosugar, S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), arachadonic acid (AA), GAG, pentosan sulfate, collagen type II, tetracyclines, diacerin, super oxide dismutase (SOD), and L-ergothionine.
It is a further object of the present invention to provide compositions to repair, treat, and prevent damage to connective tissue in humans and animals that contain one or more of the elements selected from the group consisting of aminosugar, SAMe, arachidonic acid, GAG, pentosan sulfate, collagen type II, tetracyclines, diacerin, SOD, and L-ergothionine.
These and other objects of the present invention are apparent from the detailed description and claims below.